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Seventy individuals from two African and four black Brazilian populations were studied for the first hypervariable segment of mtDNA. To delineate a more complete phylogeographic scenario of the African mtDNA haplogroups in Brazil and to provide additional information on the nature of the Atlantic slave trade, we analyzed our data together with previously published data. The results indicate different sources of African slaves for the four major Brazilian regions. In addition, the data revealed patterns that differ from those expected on the basis of historical registers, thus suggesting the role of ethnic sex differences in the slave trade.
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For the purpose of acute toxicity testing, we used male Swiss albino mice instead of female. This was because of the fact that serum iron level of female mice is normally lower than that of male mice, due to chronic menstrual blood loss. So, toxicity due to iron overloading, if any, would have likely been more apparent in male mice than in female. Furthermore, there is evidence that male mice might be more predisposed to toxic effects of iron overloading than female mice.[26] However, in the present study, no acute toxicity effects of black tea were apparent by limit test. The NOAEL of iron-rich black tea (BTS-2) was determined to be >2 g/kg. Again, results from the sub-chronic toxicity study do not provide any evidence of harmful effects of iron-rich black tea at 250 mg/kg/day as demonstrated by the findings in regular examination of the animals, body weight and food consumption measurements, hematology, serum chemistry, organ weights, or histopathology.
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During the Trans-Saharan slave trade, slaves were transported across the Sahara desert. Most were moved from Sub-Saharan Africa to North Africa to be sold to Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civilizations; a small percentage went the other direction.[1] Estimates of the total number of black slaves moved from Sub-Saharan Africa to the Muslim world range from 11-17 million, and the trans-Saharan trade routes conveyed a significant number of this total, with one estimate tallying around 7.2 million slaves crossing the Sahara from the mid-7th century until the 20th century.[2][3]
In the early Roman Empire, the city of Lepcis established a slave market to buy and sell slaves from the Bantu African interior.[1] In the 5th century AD, Roman Carthage was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara.[9] The empire imposed customs tax on the trade of slaves.[1][9] Black slaves seem to have been valued as household slaves for their exotic appearance.[9] Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than medieval times due to the high demand for slaves in the Roman Empire.[9] However the slave trade through the Sahara in antiquity may have been small and rare as Saharan trade didn't reach large dimensions until the Arabs and Berbers introduced large numbers of camels into the desert.[10][11]
Paul Lovejoy estimates that around 6 million black slaves were transported across the Sahara between the years 650 AD and 1500 AD.[3] The trans-Saharan slave trade, established in Antiquity,[9] continued during the Middle Ages. Following the early 8th-century conquest of North Africa, Arabs, Berbers, and other ethnic groups ventured into Sub-Saharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia, and also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the trans-Saharan trade, especially in slaves, as there was a constant demand for slaves in the eastern Arab nations and Constantinople.[12] The Muslim slave traders distinguished themselves from the peoples on the other side of the Sahara, referring to these African populations as Zanj or Sudan meaning "black".[13] Arabs would routinely acquire slaves through violent raiding, followed by capturing them and sending them on dangerous forced marches across the Sahara to slave markets where they would be treated as chattel i.e. as personal property that can be bought and sold.[14] In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli and Cairo. Sales were held in public places such as souks.
Aside from raiding, slaves could also be obtained by purchasing them from local black rulers. The 9th century Arab historian Ya'qubi states:.mw-parser-output .templatequoteoverflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequoteciteline-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0
They [the Arabs] export black slaves...belonging to the Mira, Zaghawa, Maruwa, and other black races who are near to them and whom they capture. I hear that the black kings sell blacks, without pretext and without war.[15]
Indeed it was rare that African rulers would resist the slave trade and usually they would act as middlemen, rounding up members of nearby villages to be sold to visiting merchants.[16] The 12th century Arab geographer al-Idrisi noted that black Africans would also participate in slave raiding stating that:
Al-Idrisi would also describe the different methods Muslim merchants would use to enslave blacks, recording that some would "steal the children of the Zanj using dates...lure them with dates and lead them from place to place, until they seize them, take them out of the country and transport them to their own countries".[13] In 1353 the Berber explorer Ibn Battuta would record accompanying a trade caravan to Morocco which carried 600 black female slaves who were to be used as domestic servants and concubines.[17][12] When Battuta visited the ancient African kingdom of Mali he recounted that the local inhabitants vied with each other in the number of slaves and servants they had, and was himself given a slave boy as a "hospitality gift."[18]
The range of tasks given to slaves was varied and included servile labor utilized for "irrigation, pastoralism, mining, transport, public works, proto-industry, and construction."[22][23] In general black slaves were used as laborers, servants and eunuchs.[24] Some female slaves could be used for labor, but most would be used for domestic chores and concubinage.[25] Eunuchs, who were around seven times more expensive than non-castrated males due to their rarity, could be used as harem guards, administrators, tutor, secretaries, commercial agents, and even concubines.[26] Due to strictures within Islamic Law slaves would not usually be castrated within Muslim territory and therefore would be castrated before being sent across the Sahara, although sometimes slaves were castrated after purchase in North African slave markets.[23] Conditions within the mining industry were notoriously harsh especially the salt mines of Basra where tens of thousands of black slaves toiled in extremely miserable conditions living on insufficient amounts of food.[24] This poor treatment led to the bloody Zanj Rebellion or "black revolution".[24] Ya'qubi records that both male and female slaves were employed in the copper mines of Upper Egypt.[24] The Carmarthian Republic of eastern Arabia is said to have employed 30,000 blacks slaves to perform all difficult labor.[24] Some black slaves served in the military forces of North Africa.[25][27] For example the Zirid Dynasty used black slaves imported from Sudan via Zawila.[21]
In the Muslim culture of the middle ages blackness became increasingly identified with slavery.[29] This was justified by appeals to a specific interpretation of the biblical story of Curse of Ham that posited Ham had been cursed by Noah in two ways, the first, the turning of his skin black, and the second, that his descendants would be doomed to slavery.[29] Muslim slave traders would use this as a pretext to enslave blacks, including black Muslims.[29] In the late 14th century a black king of Bornu wrote a letter to the sultan of Egypt complaining of the continual slave raids perpetrated by Arab tribesmen, which were devastating his lands and resulting in the mass enslavement of the black Muslim population of the region.[30] In Al-Andalus, the area of medieval Iberia under Islamic control, black Muslims could be legally held as slaves.[31] This all occurred despite the orthodox Muslim jurist position that no Muslim, regardless of race, could be enslaved.[24] Even as late as the 19th century many of the common people in Islamic society still believed that enslavement based on skin color, rather than based on religion, was approved by the religious laws of Islam.[29] 2ff7e9595c
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